Introduction to Atoms & Substances

• Substances are composed of atoms, which are electrically neutral particles.
• Atoms consist of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively charged electrons.
• Atoms bond together to form “chemical individuals,” the specific compounds we observe.
• The strength of these bonds is characterised by binding energy.

Components of Atomic Structure

• Electrons: Negatively charged particles that orbit the nucleus. The interaction of valence electrons (outermost electrons) is responsible for chemical bond formation.
• Protons: Positively charged particles located within the nucleus.
• Neutrons: Neutral particles located within the nucleus. The presence of neutrons contributes to the stability and binding energy of atoms, particularly noticeable in helium compared to hydrogen.

Chemical Bonds

• Formation: Chemical bonds are formed due to the interaction of valence electrons between atoms.
• Bond Formation and Energy: When bonds form, the system’s energy decreases, leading to a more stable state. This energy release often manifests as heat, light, or other forms of energy.
• Breaking Bonds: Breaking bonds requires energy input.

Theories of Bonding:

• Valence Bond Theory: Explains bond formation through the overlapping of atomic orbitals containing valence electrons.
• Molecular Orbital Theory: Suggests that atomic orbitals combine to form molecular orbitals, and electrons occupy these orbitals according to specific rules (Pauli principle and Hund’s rule).

Electromagnetic Interactions in Bonding

• Electromagnetic Fields and Charges: Electrically charged particles (electrons and protons) generate electromagnetic fields, influencing other charged particles.
• Role of Magnetic Dipoles: Sources propose that magnetic dipoles, created by nature as a manifestation of electrical matter, mediate the interaction between charges within the atom. These magnetic dipoles are thought to be responsible for the spin of electrons and nuclei and contribute to the magnetic moment.
• Energy Transfer: Energy transfer in the form of heat, light, and magnetism involves the movement of “electromagnetic particles” – a proposed combination of sub elementary dipoles and magnetic dipoles.

“Electromagnetic Particles” and Bonding

Hypothesis: Sources propose the existence of “electromagnetic particles” as fundamental units in the electromagnetic field. These particles are described as combinations of “sub elementary dipoles” and “magnetic dipoles.”

• Formation: It is suggested that these particles arise from the annihilation of elementary particles and antiparticles (e.g., electrons and positrons).
• Role in Bonding: “Electromagnetic particles” are hypothesised to play a crucial role in bonding by:
  • Mediating the attraction between valence electrons and the positively charged poles of other atoms.
  • Influencing the energy levels and configurations within atoms and molecules.

Entropy and Structural-Energy Correspondence

• Entropy Principle: Proposes a principle of “entropy – structural – energy correspondence.” This principle suggests that the organisation and interactions within a system (like an atom or molecule) are determined by the balance between entropy (disorder) and the tendency towards the most energetically favourable state.
• Non-Equilibrium and Order: Fluctuations and energy flow from the environment create non-equilibrium states within systems. These non-equilibrium states drive the system towards new, more organised configurations to minimise energy and achieve equilibrium.

Note: The concepts of “electromagnetic particles,” “sub elementary dipoles,” and “magnetic dipoles” as presented in the sources represent a particular theoretical framework. These concepts are not universally established scientific principles and require further investigation and validation.

References

1. Encyclopaedia Britannica. (n.d.). Atomic structure and bonding. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/science/chemical-bonding/Atomic-structure-and-bonding

2. Coulson, C. A. (1980). The development of the theory of molecular structure. In The Shapes of Molecules (pp. 1-22). Palgrave. Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-16250-5_1

3. Ivanov, V. (2021). The nature of bonds in the atomic structure of substances. Journal of Molecular Structure, 123(4), 56-67. Retrieved from https://www.fortunejournals.com/articles/the-nature-of-bonds-in-the-atomic-structure-of-substances.html

4. NDE-ED. (n.d.). Bonds. Retrieved from https://www.nde-ed.org/Physics/Materials/Structure/bonds.xhtml#:~=All%20chemical%20bonds%20involve%20electrons,them%20to%20empty%20the%20shell